Development of attribution theory

Development of attribution theoryThe Attribution Theory was developed by Fritz Heider, it looks at how people stool sense of their world, and how they interpret events and relate them to their mentation and conduct. The Attribution Theory divides the demeanour attributes into familiarityable and external work outs, internal attribution is an attribution that is do by looking at a psyches characteristics, such as intelligence or psycheality, on the other hand external attribution is an attribution that is made when looking at factors outside the psyches control, such as bad luck or peer pressure. Psychologists get under atomic number 53s skin raise from research that people are often biased in their ways of thinking and judgment when deciding who or what is the reasonableness of an event or action. External factors are attributed when others are in(predicate) in their goals and we are non, but internal factors are attributed when we are successful in our goals and o thers fail (Heider, 1958).The same inference theory describes that an attribution is made when a judgement made by one soulfulness on a nonher persons deportment, which has been caused by a particular trait. This suggests that we believe that a persons behaviour is intentional and later identifying this we try to look for a personal characteristic which may have caused this behaviour (Manstead, Hewstone, 1996).According to the synonymic inference theory we can make a similar inference based on 2 major factors, the world-class is when we perceive that the person freely chose the behaviour, and the second is when we perceive that the person mean to do whatever he or she did. An example of correspondent inference is if we see somebody beating someone else up, we will assume that they are going this deliberately, not because they are pretending and that they are a violent person by nature. An internal attribution is uniformly to be made if we think that the behaviour was fr eely chosen, intended and low in social desirability, an external attribution is more likely to be made if we believe that the behaviour was not freely chosen, unintended and socially desirable, we usually over rate internal attributions and under rate the role of external attributions.The covariation theory believes that people decide that the most likely cause of any behaviour is the factor that occurs as the time as the behaviour. The covariation theory focuses on external attributions in contrast to the correspondent inference theory which focuses on the process of making internal attributions and the factors beyond the person that may be causing the behaviour. According to the covariation theory, to make an attribution 3 pieces of information are needed. The first is consensus information, which informs us of whether other people have had a similar or different reaction when in the same situation. A situational attribution is made if there is a high consensus, which would indic ate that others has a similar behavioural reaction, a person attribution is made if there is a low consensus, which would indicate that others had a different behavioural response. The second piece of information needed is distinctiveness information, which describes the situation in which behaviour occurred, and determines whether or not the situation is unique or distinctive which may have caused the behaviour (Bordens Horowitz, 2002). A person attribution is made if the person acts this way in other situations as well as in this particular situation, however if the person does act differently in this situation compared to other situations therefore a situational attribution is made, and we assume that the behaviour was most likely caused by the situation that the person was in and not by the person themselves. The last piece of information needed is consistency information, which informs us of whether the person has acted this way before or if this is a one-time behaviour. One of the limitations of the covariation theory is that it fails to distinguish between the intentional and unwilled behaviour of a person (Hayes, 2002).Jurors often make internal and external attributions of the defendant and of the victim when declaring their verdicts in spite of appearance the courtroom. In one study researchers found that the jurywomans verdicts or suspicions of whether or not the defendant was guilty were not temptd by whether the defendant was incapacitate or not. Those jurors who did think that the defendant was guilty were less likely to hustle the defendant if they were described as disabled rather than non-disabled. This tendency occurred because the jurors made fewer internal attributions for the disabled juveniles actions (Najdowski, Bottoms, Vargas Cummens, 2009).One movement study investigated the trials in which the defendant was charged with a firearms related offence, it was found that if the charge had intended to use the firearm then they we re found guilty by the jurors. This case study shows supports for the correspondent inference theory as the defendant chose and freely intended to use the firearms (Tinsley, 2001).In a spud called 12 waste custody, a young boy is put on trial for the murder of this father, the bulk of jurors decide that the boy is guilty. One juror, played by Lee J. Cobb makes internal attributions of the boys behaviour based on the fact that he is from the slums, and believes that the boy must have no respect or sense of morals because of where he is from (Lumet, 1957). A criticism of the correspondent inference theory is that is does not account for fundamental attribution error, which is a term used when people intensify the importance of explanations linked to a persons personality and bowdlerise the importance of explanations linked to the situation which occurred to explain a persons behaviour (Heffner, 2001). In the film 12 Angry Men, evidence used against the boy includes when he is hea rd shouting at this father Ill bug out ya before leaving the house, as the film continues, jurors begin to argue among themselves and Lee J. Cobb is insulted, to which he replies Ill eradicate ya in anger. This is a good example of fundamental attribution error as Lee J. Cobb was irascible in the situation and does not actually mean he is going to kill the other juror. In addition to this another pointed out that if the boy went back to retrieve the knife he must have been guilty and was trying to cover up the evidence, which suggests that if he did kill his father then he intended to do so.It seems that a defendants characteristics have a strong influence on jurors decision making, Dowdle, Gillen and Miller (1974) conclude that significant leniency is applied to defendants who are attributed with positive characteristics by jurors, compared to those who are attributed with negative characteristics (Decaire, 1999).When the juror is provided with front convictions of the defenda nt in trial, this can provide them with extra information as well as influence their decision. In one study, researchers investigated the effects of the defendants prior record on mock jurors judgements and found highest conviction range would occur when the defendant had a prior sentence which was the identical to the charge they were presently being prosecuted for, and lowest conviction rates if the defendant had no past convictions (Wissler Saks, 1985). This shows support for the consistency element of the covariation theory, as old convictions of the same present charge provide jurors which an attribution that this person has behaved this way before and is repeating this behaviour despite being convicted. Padawar-Singer and Barton (1974) found that there was a 50% more chance that jurors decided the defendant was guilty if they were aware of the defendants past criminal record, compared to if they did not have this information (Brewer, 2002). In support of this, one study f ound that mock jurors were more likely to convict the defendant when they had evidence of a prior conviction than when they had no evidence (Greene Dodge, 1995).It may argued that jurors should make their decisions based on the evidence available and not on information about the defendants past convictions because people do change and just because a person was convicted once does not mean that this should be used against them for their entire life. However in one case study it was found that Simon Berowitz was cleared of burglary at a solicitors office without the jury knowing that he had 230 foregoing convictions for burglary. In this instance jurors should have been provided with the information of Berowitzs previous convictions as the consistency of his actions would have allowed jurors to make a more informed decision, but as the jurors were not provided with the defendants previous convictions they may have made a situational attribution using distinctive information, believi ng that Berowitz had never been charged for burglary before (Brewer, 2002). In the film 12 Angry Men, the juror played by Jack Klugman was portrayed as a man who, like the boy, was from the slums, initially he seems unsure whether the boy is guilty or not but goes along with the volume verdict because of pressure (Lumet, 1957). This is an example of situational attribution using consensus information, as described by the covariation theory, as the juror is looking at the decisions made by others and then makes his own.Not all research has found that jurors make internal or external attributions about the defendant when making decisions. In one study, a field was performed and it was found by researchers that one of the most influential factors impart to jury making decision was the cognition jurors had of the law as well as the instructions and information about the case (Kakar, 2002).Other factors may also affect jurors decision making such as the ages of the jurors, in one cour t case, researchers found a difference in length of sentence and the amount of responsibility attributed to the parent between undergraduate mock jurors and high school mock jurors (Ackerman, McMahon Fehr, 1984).Racial leniency is also another contributing factor found in many jury studies, Sommers Ellsworth (2000) and Ugweugbu (1976) both found that the jurors decisions were influenced when the juror was of the same race as the victim or defendant. People make internal and external attributions on a day-to-day cornerstone trying to find an explanation as to why people behave in a legitimate way and although many studies have found that jurors use the information of intent of the defendant, past convictions and the behaviour and verdicts of their consort jurors to help them making a decision, there have also been other studies which show other contributing factors which should be taken into account, such the age, race, gender of the juror and the defendant as well the amount of knowledge the juror has about the law.ReferencesHeider, F. (1958). The Psychology of Interpersonal Relations. John Wiley SonsManstead, A.S.R and Hewstone, M. (1996). Attribution Theories. The Blackwall Encyclopaedia of neighborly Psychology, pg 67. Wiley-Blackwall.Bordens, K. S and Horowitz, I.A. (2002). Social Psychology (2nd Ed). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.Hayes, N. (2002). Foundations of Psychology (3rd Ed). Thomson Learning.Heffner, C.L. (2001). Psychology 101. Chapter 8 Social Psychology. Retrieved January 3, 2010, from http//www.allpsych.com/psychology101/attribution_attraction.htmlNajdowski, C.J., Bottoms, B.L., Vargas, M.C. Cummens, M.L. (2009). All Academic Research. Understanding Jurors Perceptions of Juvenile Defendants, cause of Intellectual Disability and Confession Evidence. Retrieved January 3, 2010 from http//allacademic.com/meta/p_mla_apa_research_citation/2/9/5/7/8/p295784_index.htmlTinsley, Y. (2001). Jury finis Making A Look Inside The Jury Room. British S ociety of Criminology, Vol. 4.Lumet, S. (Director) Fonda, H. Rose, R. (Producers). (1957). 12 Angry Men (Film) USA MGM.Kakar, S. (2002). An analysis of the relationship between jurors personal attributes and decision making. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, Vol. 17 (2) pp 45-53.Ackerman, A.D., McMahon, P.M. Fehr, L.A. (1984). Defendant characteristics and judgment behaviours of adolescent mock jurors. 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